Appendix
Table 1: Related works summary
| Reference | Objective | Models | Dataset | Key Findings | Research Gaps | ||
| Abdullah et al. (2025) | PLC → collective efficacy via TSE | Mediation (SEM) | Malaysia primary teachers | TSE mediates PLC → collective efficacy | Limited generalizability beyond Malaysia | ||
| Çoban et al. (2020) | Leadership, trust, collaboration → TSE | Multilevel mediation | Cross-school teacher data | Collaboration mediates leadership → TSE | Context not education-specific focus on DL | ||
| Fan & Chu (2025) | DL → job satisfaction | Chain mediation | China teachers | DL → collaboration → TSE → satisfaction | Focus limited to job satisfaction | ||
| Gao et al. (2024) | Transformational leadership → PLC | SEM | China schools | Leadership strengthens PLC functioning | No direct TSE modelling | ||
| Gong (2025) | DL → teaching innovation | Chain mediation (SEM) | TALIS (Shanghai) | Collaboration & TSE mediate DL → innovation | Context limited to secondary schools | ||
| Gordon et al. (2023) | Review of TSE in reform | Systematic review | Multiple studies | TSE critical for reform success | Lack of integrated empirical models | ||
| Li (2022) | PLC → job satisfaction | Moderation | China teachers | TSE moderates PLC → satisfaction | No mediation pathways tested | ||
| Lin (2022) | DL → innovativeness | Mediation | China teachers | Autonomy & collaboration mediate DL | TSE indirect, not central focus | ||
| Liu et al. (2023) | DL → wellbeing | SEM | Shanghai teachers | TSE links DL → wellbeing | Cross-sectional design limits causality | ||
| Pan (2023) | PLC → learner-centered teaching | Mediation | Taiwan teachers | TSE mediates PLC → teaching approach | Limited cross-cultural validation | ||
| Pan & Cheng (2023) | PLC → professional learning | Theory-driven evaluation | Teacher samples | PLC enhances TSE & learning outcomes | Limited focus on leadership variables | ||
| Wang et al. (2025) | Collaboration → wellbeing | Moderated mediation | China teachers | TSE mediates collaboration → wellbeing | DL role partially explored | ||
| Wang et al. (2022) | DL & teacher leadership → TSE | SEM | Inclusive education teachers | Leadership improves TSE for inclusion | Context-specific (inclusive education) | ||
| Windasari et al. (2025) | Transformational leadership → innovation | Mediation | Teacher samples | PLC, TSE, motivation drive innovation | Journal impact comparatively lower | ||
| Xie et al. (2022) | Principal leadership → TSE | Multilevel SEM | China teachers | Collaboration mediates leadership → TSE | Focus on principal leadership, not DL | ||
| Xiu et al. (2022) | DL → commitment to change | Mediation | China teachers | PLC & job satisfaction mediate DL | TSE not directly examined | ||
| Yang & Chang (2024) | DL → professional development | Mediation | Primary teachers | Primary teachers | TSE not explicitly modelled | ||
| Zhang et al. (2024) | PLC → resilience | Mediation | China teachers | Identity mediates PLC → resilience | TSE not included | ||
| Zhang et al. (2025) | DL → TSE | Systematic review | 2019–2025 studies | Strong DL → TSE via PLC/collaboration | Need empirical multi-model testing | ||
| Zhao et al. (2025) | DL → innovation | Chain mediation |
| Commitment & collaboration mediate DL | TSE indirect role |
Figure 2: Low-Order Model (First-Order Measurement Model)
Figure 3: Higher-Order Model (Higher-Order Structural Model)
Figure 4: Conceptual Smart PLS model for distributed leadership to teacher innovative behaviour
Figure 5: SmartPLS Structural Model with Mediation
Table 8 International Comparison of Findings on Distributed leadership , Teacher Self-efficacy, PLCs, and Teacher Innovation
| Study | Main Variables | Key Findings | Comparison with Present Study |
| Lin Q (2022) | Distributed leadership , teacher innovativeness, professional collaboration | Distributed leadership positively influenced teacher innovativeness through collaboration and autonomy | Consistent with the present study, which found that distributed leadership directly and indirectly enhances teacher innovative behaviour through mediators |
| Gong J (2025) | Distributed leadership , teacher autonomy, collaboration, self-confidence, teaching innovation | Teacher Self-efficacy and collaboration significantly mediated the effect of distributed leadership on innovation | Strongly aligned with the dual mediation mechanism identified in the present study |
| Çoban Ö et al. (2020) | Leadership focus, collaboration, Teacher Self-efficacy | Leadership and collaboration significantly improved Teacher Self-efficacy | Supports the present study’s finding that leadership practices enhance self-confidence |
| Pan H-L W (2023) | Communities with teachers learning, self-confidence, learner-centered teaching | PLCs and collaborative learning positively affected self-confidence and teaching improvement | Similar to the present study, PLCs were found to strengthen innovation-related outcomes |
| Zheng X et al. (2020) | PLCs, Teacher Self-efficacy, teacher commitment | PLCs significantly improved Teacher Self-efficacy and professional commitment | Reinforces the mediating role of PLCs found in the present study |
| Gordon D et al. (2023) | Teacher Self-efficacy and educational reform | Teacher Self-efficacy was a strong predictor of innovation and adaptation to reform | Supports the present finding that self-confidence promotes innovative behaviour |
| Wang T et al. (2022) | Distributed leadership , teacher leadership, self-confidence | Distributed leadership significantly increased Teacher Self-efficacy | Consistent with the present study’s structural model results |
| Yang X and Chang Y-C (2024) | Distributed leadership , PLCs, teacher professional development | PLCs mediated the relationship between distributed leadership and teacher development | Similar mediation mechanism observed in the present study |
| Windasari E R et al. (2025) | Transformational leadership, PLCs, self-confidence, innovative teaching | PLCs and self-confidence jointly enhanced innovative teaching practices | Closely aligned with the dual mediation findings of the current study |
| Zhao Y et al. (2025) | Distributed leadership , collaboration, commitment, teacher innovation | Leadership indirectly influenced innovation through collaboration pathways | Supports the indirect effects identified in the current model |
| Xie Z et al. (2022) | Principal leadership, collaboration, Teacher Self-efficacy | Collaboration mediated the effect of leadership on self-confidence | Similar organizational mechanism identified in the present study |
| Abdullah Z et al. (2025) | PLCs, Teacher Self-efficacy, collective teacher efficacy | Teacher Self-efficacy mediated the relationship between PLCs and collective efficacy | Extends the present study’s emphasis on the importance of self-confidence in collaborative environments |