Appendix
Table 1: Related works summary
| Reference | Objective | Models | Dataset | Key Findings | Research Gaps | ||
| Abdullah et al. (2025) | PLC → collective efficacy via TSE | Mediation (SEM) | Malaysia primary teachers | TSE mediates PLC → collective efficacy | Limited generalizability beyond Malaysia | ||
| Çoban et al. (2020) | Leadership, trust, collaboration → TSE | Multilevel mediation | Cross-school teacher data | Collaboration mediates leadership → TSE | Context not education-specific focus on DL | ||
| Fan & Chu (2025) | DL → job satisfaction | Chain mediation | China teachers | DL → collaboration → TSE → satisfaction | Focus limited to job satisfaction | ||
| Gao et al. (2024) | Transformational leadership → PLC | SEM | China schools | Leadership strengthens PLC functioning | No direct TSE modelling | ||
| Gong (2025) | DL → teaching innovation | Chain mediation (SEM) | TALIS (Shanghai) | Collaboration & TSE mediate DL → innovation | Context limited to secondary schools | ||
| Gordon et al. (2023) | Review of TSE in reform | Systematic review | Multiple studies | TSE critical for reform success | Lack of integrated empirical models | ||
| Li (2022) | PLC → job satisfaction | Moderation | China teachers | TSE moderates PLC → satisfaction | No mediation pathways tested | ||
| Lin (2022) | DL → innovativeness | Mediation | China teachers | Autonomy & collaboration mediate DL | TSE indirect, not central focus | ||
| Liu et al. (2023) | DL → wellbeing | SEM | Shanghai teachers | TSE links DL → wellbeing | Cross-sectional design limits causality | ||
| Pan (2023) | PLC → learner-centered teaching | Mediation | Taiwan teachers | TSE mediates PLC → teaching approach | Limited cross-cultural validation | ||
| Pan & Cheng (2023) | PLC → professional learning | Theory-driven evaluation | Teacher samples | PLC enhances TSE & learning outcomes | Limited focus on leadership variables | ||
| Wang et al. (2025) | Collaboration → wellbeing | Moderated mediation | China teachers | TSE mediates collaboration → wellbeing | DL role partially explored | ||
| Wang et al. (2022) | DL & teacher leadership → TSE | SEM | Inclusive education teachers | Leadership improves TSE for inclusion | Context-specific (inclusive education) | ||
| Windasari et al. (2025) | Transformational leadership → innovation | Mediation | Teacher samples | PLC, TSE, motivation drive innovation | Journal impact comparatively lower | ||
| Xie et al. (2022) | Principal leadership → TSE | Multilevel SEM | China teachers | Collaboration mediates leadership → TSE | Focus on principal leadership, not DL | ||
| Xiu et al. (2022) | DL → commitment to change | Mediation | China teachers | PLC & job satisfaction mediate DL | TSE not directly examined | ||
| Yang & Chang (2024) | DL → professional development | Mediation | Primary teachers | Primary teachers | TSE not explicitly modelled | ||
| Zhang et al. (2024) | PLC → resilience | Mediation | China teachers | Identity mediates PLC → resilience | TSE not included | ||
| Zhang et al. (2025) | DL → TSE | Systematic review | 2019–2025 studies | Strong DL → TSE via PLC/collaboration | Need empirical multi-model testing | ||
| Zhao et al. (2025) | DL → innovation | Chain mediation |
| Commitment & collaboration mediate DL | TSE indirect role |
Figure 2: Low-Order Model (First-Order Measurement Model)
Figure 3: Higher-Order Model (Higher-Order Structural Model)
Figure 4: Conceptual Smart PLS model for distributed leadership to teacher innovative behaviour